Who Killed the Princes in the Tower? – A Medieval Whodunit

This post is a review and summary of Phillipa Langley’s recent scholarly book, The Princes in the Tower: Solving History’s Greatest Cold Case (The History Press, 488p, 2023. ISBN 978 1 80399 542 7).

Langley is an enthusiastic amateur historian and prominent member of the Richard III Society.  In 2012, this enabled her to persuade the Leicester City Council to allow excavation below one of their car parks, resulting in the discovery of the 527-year-old remains of King Richard III. In 2015, Langley set up the crowd-funded Princes in the Tower Project to seek new evidence on the fate of Edward IV’s two young sons Edward V and Richard of York, traditionally thought to have been murdered by Richard. Realizing that English archives had already been exhaustively searched by generations of historians, she and her team sought new original documents in Europe – documents immune to Tudor censorship.  The book tells her results in the form of a Police Cold Case Investigation, making use of all available evidence, including explosive new documents that the Project Team have discovered in the Netherlands.  The book is a well written and a fascinating read that I strongly recommend.

I summarize Langley’s narrative below. It is a complex tale not helped by the limited stock of Christian names (Henry, Edward, Richard: Elizabeth, Margaret, Eleanor, Catherine) used by the extended Plantagenet family. I retell the story as a continuous linear narrative, separating my own commentary within italicized brackets and putting non-essential detail into footnotes.

THE BACK STORY

(The story begins more than 80 years before the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower. As Langley treats this prequel only briefly, much of this section is taken from “The Plantagenets” – a popular recent book by historian Dan Snow).

In 1399, Henry Bolingbroke, heir to the Earldom of Lancaster, deposed and murdered (he was starved to death) his cousin – Yorkist King Richard II - and had himself crowned Henry IV. Richard was a tyrant whose death was little regretted at the time, but the murder split the ruling Plantagenet family into two warring factions that came to be known as the House of York and the House of Lancaster.  As the symbol of York was a white rose and that of Lancaster a red, the resulting almost 90 years of on-and-off civil war came to be known as the Wars of the Roses. It was a deadly family feud between cousins.

Henry V succeeded his father. He became a powerful monarch who successfully renewed the Plantagenet claim to the throne of France. But Henry V died relatively young, leaving his baby son – another Henry – to succeed him. Henry VI grew up to be a simpleton with severe mental problems who, although by all contemporary accounts was amiable, pious and peace-loving, had little interest in governing and was easily led by whoever happened to closest to him at the time. As historian Dan Snow neatly puts it: “Henry VI reigned, but he never ruled”.

(Henry VI would have made an ideal monarch for the House of Windsor, but for the 15th century House of Lancaster, and for England, his accession to the throne was an unmitigated disaster. As Dan Snow points out, Henry’s character – or rather lack of it – was the single most important cause of the decades of chaos, civil war and death that were to follow).

In 1461 at the epic Battle of Towton, and again in 1471 at the Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, the young, handsome and energetic Edward Duke of York defeated the Lancastrian forces fighting on behalf of his hopeless and hapless cousin Henry VI. These battles enabled Edward to first seize and then retain the throne as Edward IV. After Tewkesbury, Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower where he died a few months later: from “melancholia” according to Edward, but most later historians believe Henry was murdered on the orders of Edward to prevent him from becoming a figurehead for future Lancastrian rebellions.

THE PLOT

Edward IV reigned competently for 12 years but died unexpectedly in April 1483 at the age of 41. He was survived, inter alia, by his Queen Elizabeth Woodville (born Elizabeth Grey), daughter Elizabeth of York (then aged 17), sons Edward Prince of Wales (12) and Richard Duke of York (9). Young Edward was immediately proclaimed Edward V and his younger brother Richard as the Prince of Wales. Their paternal Uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester [1] (Edward IV’s younger brother) became the Protector of his nephews and assumed the role of Regent until Edward came of age. In May 1483 he moved the boys to the Tower of London – the traditional residence of a monarch awaiting coronation – for their protection, the coronation to be held later that year.

But the late king’s death had released a skeleton from his cupboard.  In the early summer of 1483, Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells [2], contacted Richard of Gloucester with explosive testimony to the effect that in 1464, prior to Edward IV’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1468, he had officiated (or merely witnessed?) a secret “pre-contract” of marriage  between Edward (then Duke of York) and Lady Eleanor Butler (born Eleanor Talbot), daughter of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. Edward’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was therefore bigamous and all their children illegitimate. Throughout his life, Henry IV had been a noted libertine and debauchee. He had many acknowledged bastards. The claim that he had a few more unacknowledged ones was for many easy to believe. Other members of the clergy backed up Bishop Stillington’s claim.

(The principal, but not the only, source for this story is the Memoirs of French diplomat Philippe de Commynes. But de Commynes was not in England at that time, and it is hard to know where he got his information from. Was he merely quoting malicious gossip picked up in saloons of the French Court?).

On receipt of this information Richard of Gloucester acted swiftly and with characteristic decisiveness. In July 1483 he declared his nephews illegitimate and had himself crowned as Richard III at Westminster Abbey. But the constitutional crisis did not go away, so Richard convened a sitting of Parliament to examine the truth of the cleric’s claims.

(In 1483, this should not have been difficult. Although Lady Eleanor was dead in 1468, then, as now, marriage and marriage contracts – especially of nobility – required witnesses and written records).

Parliament concluded that Edward IV’s 1464 marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was indeed bigamous: the children of that union were therefore illegitimate. Thus, Richard of Gloucester was the legitimate and rightful King III. This conclusion was made into Law in February 1484 by an Act of Parliament called Titulus Regulus.

“King Edward was and stood married and troth-plighted to one Dame Eleanor Butler, with whom the same King Edward had made a pre-contract of matrimony long before the said feigned marriage with the said Elizabeth Grey.” (Titulus Regulus, February 1484)

(But it should be noted that, two years later, the same Parliament re-legitimized Edward IV’s family at the request of the usurper Henry Tudor ((see below)). It would be unsafe to assume that they were ever independent judges on the matter).

Richard’s reign was brief. He was hacked to death in August 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth, bravely but recklessly leading his army from the front against a Lancastrian force led by Henry Tudor. Richard’s death brought the battle to a rapid conclusion.

Henry who ?

Henry was the grandson of a marriage between Catherine de Valois – the widow of Henry V - and one of her servants, an obscure Welshman called Owain Tudor. Henry Tudor’s father (Edmund Tudor) was thus Henry VI’s half-brother. Henry Tudor’s mother, Elizabeth Beaufort (a pregnant twelve-year-old (!!) at the time of her husband Esmund’s death from the plague) was a great-great-granddaughter of Edward III. By 15th century dynastic rules (according to Phillipa Langley) there were at least three dozen living Plantagenets with better claims to the throne than Henry Tudor.  Henry’s dynastic claim ranged from tenuous to non-existent (another phrase borrowed from Dan Snow), but by right of conquest he declared himself Henry VII, cunningly dating the start of his reign from the day before the Battle of Bosworth, thus making all who fought against him at the battle traitors to the crown.

But back to the young sons of Edward IV, the Princes in the Tower and the subject of Philipa Langley’s book.

The boys were last seen by an independent observer happily playing archery in the Tower gardens in July 1483. They were never seen in public again. The fate of the two boys has become an endlessly argued 500-year-old mystery.

Were they -

A     Murdered by order of their Unspeakable Uncle Richard, eager to remove all threats to his crown?

(In 1483, Richard had obvious motive, means and opportunity. People who support this scenario are known as Henricians (as in – Henry VII was innocent of their murders). This was the Tudor explanation and is still accepted today as probable Truth by most mainstream historians).

B     Murdered by order of the Wicked Welshman Henry.

(If the young Princes were still alive when Henry gained control of England in 1485, then Henry had exactly the same motive, means and opportunity for their secret murder as Richard. After all, his motive, if anything, was even stronger than that of Richard. If Henry had found only the boy’s bodies, he would surely have displayed their corpses publicly as a means of positively establishing Richard’s guilt).

People who support this scenario are known as Ricardians (as in, Richard III was innocent). This is the version of the story was powerfully argued by Josephine Tey in her popular 1951 historical novel “The Daughter of Time”, a book still in print today).

C. Murdered by Henry Tudor, but not in 1485.

(It is this third option that that Phillipa Langley seeks to prove in her book). Read on…

THE PLOT THICKENS

At Bosworth Field in 1485, Henry had won a battle and killed a reigning King, but he had not yet won the War. In the febrile atmosphere after the battle, Henry had to act immediately to shore up his self-declared reign. If King Edward IV’s sons were still alive, questions as to heir legitimacy notwithstanding, his hold on kingship might be short lived. Phillipa Langley quotes documentary evidence that in August 1485 Henry dispatched emissaries to scour the northern centers of Yorkist power in search of the boys, while at the same time workmen were set to searching every nook and cranny of the Tower of London, excavating cellar floors and grounds, in search of recent burials. Around the same time, Henry issued a Proclamation, saying:

“.. if there were a claimant to the crown by descent from the King Edward, He was to show himself; and He (Henry) would help him to get crowned”. (Henry VII, August 1485)

(As Henry had already declared himself King, the sincerity of this statement is questionable).

Henry’s ruse (if ruse it was) failed to flush the boys out. No one came forward. The search (apparently) failed to find them, either dead or alive. Henry then declared the princes dead at the hands of Richard III – it is possible that is what he actually believed at the time. That left the boys cousin, the 12-year-old Edward, Earl of Warwick - the son of Edward IV’s long dead brother, the Duke of Clarence – as the legitimate heir to the throne. Henry had just accused Richard III of murdering the Princes in the Tower, so he could hardly do the same to Edward of Warwick, not straight away at any rate. So, he locked the lad in the Tower, pending a more suitable moment for him to engineer his disposal with less political risk (see below).

Henry wished to marry Edward IV’s daughter Elizabeth of York as this would strengthen his reign by a union of the Houses of Lancaster and York. He could not do this while Elizabeth was still officially illegitimate, so Henry’s next steps were to persuade Parliament to re-legitimize all Edward IV’s children by Elizabeth Woodville, gather up and destroy all copies of the earlier disinheriting Act Titulus Regulus [3], and (an obvious and necessary step) arrest Bishop Stillington for perjury. That done, Henry married Elizabeth. She became the mother of next Tudor king Henry VIII and the founder of the Tudor dynasty.

(Thus, the Tudor fix was in. Richard III had ordered the deaths of Edward IVs young sons, the legitimate heirs to the throne, because Henry Tudor said so. Publicly gainsaying this was treason. All evidence to the contrary, including all copies of Titulus Regius, was systematically destroyed.)

Twenty years later, two Tudor historians during the reign of Henry VIII – Polydore Vergil in 1513 and Thomas More in 1519 – sexed-up the Tudor narrative of the events of 1483-85 with added drama and evidence-free detail. During the reign of Elizabeth I, these histories were used by William Shakespeare as the basis for his play Richard III. In Shakespeare’s version, Richard as not just a ruthless opportunist – undoubtedly true – but a physically and mentally deformed psychopath to boot (but Richard got all the best lines).

WHAT HAPPENED NEXT

This is the area where the 2019-2022 discoveries of Phillipa Langley’s team offer dramatic new information and lead to a plausible revision of traditional (i.e. Tudor) history of the time.

With his 1485 declaration that Edward IV’s sons were dead, Henry had backed himself into a corner. If anyone subsequently came forward claiming to be Edward V or Richard of York, his only option would be to declare them imposters.

And that is exactly what happened in the bizarre events that followed in the years 1487 and 1490-95.

1. The “Lambert Simnel” Rebellion.

In 1487, 16-year-old Edward V (or someone purporting to be him) appeared at the Netherlands court of his aunt, the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who had known him well as a child [4]. History records nothing of where Edward had been or what he had been doing during his four missing years. His aunt and leading Yorkist nobles recognised him as the son of Edward IV and assembled a formidable, 8000-strong, army made up of mercenary German heavy infantry (landsknechts), Irish light infantry (kerns) and English troops supplied by Yorkist Lords. The Princes in the Tower Project unearthed a 1487 receipt from a French arms manufacturer recording supply of weapons (400 pikes) to Margaret of Burgundy for the use of “Margaret’s nephew, son of King Edward“. There can be thus no doubt – despite Henry Tudor’s later disinformation (see below) – the rebellion was carried out in the name of Edward V.

In 1487, Edward led [5] this army against Henry Tudor, only to be defeated (and most likely killed there and buried in a common grave [6]) at the closely fought Battle of Stoke [7].

Henry declared that the failed rebellion was led by a low-born imposter claiming to be sixteen-year-old Edward Earl of Warwick. To “prove” this, in a piece of theatre, Henry produced a youth captured at the battle called Lambert Simnel (possibly his real name) – the son of an Oxford organ maker or, in other accounts: a joiner, a tailor, a baker or a shoemaker’s son (i.e. any occupation suitably base and contemptible). The real Earl of Warwick was taken from the Tower where he had been languishing and paraded through the streets of London. 

(In a repressive regime, speaking Truth to Power is Treason. In the 15th century that usually meant being hung, drawn and quartered: sensible people held their tongues. Lambert Simnel ((a convenient nonentity)) was magnanimously forgiven by Henry and set to work in his kitchen. Faced with a choice between certain execution or a secure job for life in the royal household, Lambert would not have hesitated to go along with this charade).

(As a bonus for Henry, he now had an acceptable excuse to behead the innocent young Earl of Warwick, who became the fourth Plantagenet victim of Henry Tudor’s dynastic cleansing operation. But he was very far from the last. The relentless Tudor pogrom to hunt down and eliminate all members of the English aristocracy with even a trace of Plantagenet blood lasted for 50 years. The final victim was the aged Margaret De La Pole ((daughter of the Duke of Clarence, sister to Edward Earl of Warwick)), beheaded on the orders of Henry VIII in 1541. The French Ambassador, who witnessed the beheading, wrote of an incompetent executioner raining 11 blows on the old lady’s head and shoulders before he was able to successfully hack off her head).

2. The “Perkin Warbeck” Rebellion.

In 1490, 16-year-old Richard of York (or someone purporting to be him) appeared in the Netherlands and met his aunt, Margaret of Burgundy. She had not seen him for nine years but was in no doubt who he was. As she wrote in Latin to her cousin, Queen Isabella of Spain:

“I recognised him easily as if I had just seen him yesterday or the day before…and that was not by one or two general signs, but by so many visible and specific signs that hardly one person in ten hundred thousand (a million) might be found who would have marks of the same kind.” (Margaret of Burgundy, 1493).

At the likely instigation of his aunt, and remembering the lies told by Henry at the time of his brother Edward’s unsuccessful rebellion three years before, Richard wrote a detailed account of his movements during his missing years. Dutch researcher Nathalie Bliekendaal, a member of the Princes in the Tower Project, located a copy of this document in a dusty Dutch archive. The copy is a handwritten translation into Old Dutch from a lost French original and has been dated by independent experts (on linguistic and handwriting evidence) to around 1500. In it, Richard tells how, in July or August 1483, he and his brother Edward were separated and never saw each other again. Richard was then taken from the Tower in disguise and transported to France by two trusted retainers of John Howard (the Duke of Norfolk), and Viscount Francis Lovell, both loyal subjects of Richard III [8]. In the care of these men, Richard stayed in France for a few years. Fearing recognition by agents of Henry Tudor, now actively searching for him again after the Battle of Stoke, he fled to Spain, and thence to Portugal. When he reached his majority, and knowing he was the rightful King Richard IV of England, Richard made his way to Burgundy to make himself known to his aunt Margaret and claim his inheritance.

Besides his aunt, Richard was accepted as Richard IV of England by Phillip I (Duke of Burgundy), Maximilian I, (the Holy Roman Emperor), Albert III (King of Germany) and James IV (King of Scotland). With the support of these monarchs in finance, manpower and shipping, Richard raised an army and, over a 3-year period, attempted several invasions of England: first from Ireland, then from Scotland and finally from Cornwall. But English support for the Yorkist cause was waning as Yorkist numbers and enthusiasm had been shredded by ten years of lost battles and judicial executions. Lacking substantial English support, all Richard’s attempts failed, and he was finally captured by Henry VII’s forces in 1495. Under torture or threat of torture, Richard signed a prepared statement saying that he was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a boatman from Tournai in France, who had been recruited and schooled in his deception by Margaret of York. The forced “confession” did not save him. In 1499, Richard was hung (beheading, considered more merciful, was reserved for nobility) at the Tower of London and buried under the name of Perkin Warbeck (or, in other accounts, Piers Osbeck). Thus passed the last Plantagenet King of England – a dynasty which had ruled England since Henry II, 231 years before.

THE URN IN THE ABBEY

In a niche at the back of the Lady Chapel of Westminster Abbey, behind the tombs of Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots, is a marble urn which, according to the Latin legend on the plinth, holds the bones of Edward V and Richard Duke of York. Click for a sharper image. Photo by author.

In 1674, workmen demolishing an external staircase near the SE corner of the White Tower discovered human bones at a depth of 3 meters. They tossed them onto a pile of building rubble. When Charles II heard of the discovery, he ordered the bones retrieved and had them examined by his personal physician, Dr John White. White determined that the remains were of two young boys whom he identified as Edward V and his brother Richard Duke of York. In this identification, Dr White and King Charles were influenced by Sir Thomas More’s 1519 account that the princes had been buried “beneath a staircase”, although they chose to ignore More’s added detail that the corpses were soon after exhumed and reburied “elsewhere”. On the King’s orders, the bones were placed in a marble urn and displayed in Westminster Abbey above an inscription identifying them as the remains of the Princes in the Tower, suffocated to death on the orders of their “perfidious” uncle, Richard III. There it remains to this day and thousands of visitors daily pass before it (see photo above).

The urn was opened in 1933, and its contents examined by two anatomists, I.E. Tanner and W.J. Whyte. From the start, Tanner and Whyte never seriously thought to question that they were dealing with the remains of the Princes in the Tower. They took a detailed measurements, X-rays and numerous B &W photographs. Their conclusion was much the same as that of Dr White 260 years before: the urn contained the jumbled and incomplete bones of two young boys, one aged around 8 years, the other around 12.

Church authorities will not allow another opening of the urn. The Princes in the Tower Project commissioned a leading Dutch forensic pathologist, Professor George Maat, to re-examine the data, X-rays and photographs published by the 1933 team. According to Professor Maat’s 2019 Report, the urn contains the bones of two humans, but possibly three, with age ranges of 9-15 and 8-12 years. However, Maat found no evidence for the sex of the remains, no evidence for cause of death, no evidence for or against consanguinity, and no evidence for how long they had been in the ground prior to discovery in 1674.

So, good candidates for the Princes in the Tower? Perhaps, but there are other possibilities.

The Tower of London was built by William the Conqueror in 1077 on the site of a Roman fort which was itself built on the site of an Iron Age fort and settlement. In 1950, very close to the place and at the same depth as the 1674 discovery, the complete skeleton of a 13–16-year-old boy was excavated. The skeleton still available and has recently been dated by the Carbon¹⁴ isotopic method to around 3000 years old.

Until and unless it is possible to re-examine the remains in the Westminster Urn with modern techniques of DNA analysis and C¹⁴ dating, their significance is unknown. If such results were to indicate they are exactly what the legend below the Urn says they are, then the ultimate resting place of the Princes in the Tower will be solved, although questions as to how, why, when (to the nearest 10 years) and by whom, they were killed would still remain an open question.

But until then, we are back to square one. Which leads me to some …

FINAL THOUGHTS

The tale is a classic whodunit but as a real-life case there can be no truth reveal by the great detective in the final chapter.

People, events, and dates in Phillipa Langley’s book are based on contemporary documents that are widely accepted as factual. Many of these documents are new discoveries by the Princes in the Tower project.

Motivations, and reconstructions of events not recorded, follow “balance of probability” arguments rather than the tougher criteria of “beyond all reasonable doubt”. With the winnowing of evidence through the passage of time and the passage through the hands of early Tudor monarchs, this is probably the best that can ever be achieved.

But probability arguments ultimately boil down to personal opinion and can always be contested. For an alternative opinion to Phillipa Langley’s, based on the same documents but a different assessment of probabilities, you should read the 2024 review of Langley’s book by historian Chris Phillip HERE.

And pay attention to the wise words of Sigmund Freud:

“…one has always to remember that the probable need not necessarily be the truth and the truth not always probable.”  

For me, Phillipa Langley’s account of the period offers a more believable history than the carefully crafted Tudor version that is still, by and large, accepted by mainstream historians.

Richard III was a decisive and ruthless opportunist, swift to dispose of his political enemies, but Langley presents plausible evidence that he had compassion for the innocent young sons of his elder brother.

After reading her book I have become a Ricardian. But I could be wrong.

Richard III. Is he England’s most maligned king?

(The original portrait from life is in the National Portrait Gallery. The image from a public open source)

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